Military Doctrine

Barely a year after the self-immolation of a young fruit seller in Tunisia, a vast wave of popular protest has convulsed the Middle East, overthrowing long-ruling dictators and transforming the region’s politics almost beyond recognition. But the biggest transformations of what has been labeled as the “Arab Spring” are yet to come. An insider to both American policy and the world of the Arab public, Marc Lynch shows that the fall of particular leaders is but the least of the changes that will emerge from months of unrest.

Om morgenen den 6. august 1945 udløser besætningen på flyet Enola Gay en atombombe over Hiroshima. Få minutter efter er den japanske provinsby forvandlet til et brændende helvede. Tre dage senere overgår den samme skæbne Nagasaki. Selv de forhærdede japanske generaler, som ellers var fast besluttede på, at landet skulle fortsætte kampen, er rystede over de ufattelige ødelæggelser. Og da kejseren selv også taler for overgivelse, vælger Japan at acceptere en betingelsesløs kapitulation.

De nazistiske forbrydelser var mange. I 1934 føler Hitler sig så truet af rivaler i sit eget parti, at han ser stort på landets love og beordrer mere end 80 mord. I to blodige dage dræber Führerens private SS-enhed gamle venner i SA plus 10-20 kritiske generaler og parlamentariske politikere. I juni 1940 marcherede tyske soldater til det sydlige Polen. I løbet af de næste fire år bygger arkitekter, ingeniører og SS-officerer et af historiens mest forfærdelige steder: Dødsfabrikken Auschwitz, hvor mennesker myrdes med klinisk effektivitet.

Кодекс Бусідо (також перекладають як "Шлях самурая" чи "Мистецтво самурая") або ж японською — "Хаґакуре" ("Приховане у листі"), був написаний Ямамото Цунетомо (1659 — 1719). Він був самураєм з клану Саґа, що на острові Кюсю. Після смерті свого повелителя Набесіма Наосіґе, Ямамото став монахом і все своє життя присвятив узагальненню принципів Шляху самурая, а також популяризації принципів честі й вірності своєму володарю.

In the shadowed swamps of Revolutionary South Carolina, General Francis Marion—the Swamp Fox—waged a war of wits against the British Empire, turning mud and moonlight into weapons of liberty. With a ragtag militia, he struck like thunder, vanishing before the redcoats could strike back, his name a whispered legend of defiance. Now, in The Swamp Fox Unleashed, retired Marine Colonel Daniel Hunter Wilson reveals how Marion’s guerrilla genius echoes through centuries, shaping the Marine Corps’ modern doctrine of maneuver warfare.

In August 1940, Berlin was hit by British bombers. Hitler immediately ordered a series of gigantic air defences be built - each one more expensive than the city’s entire Olympic facilities - but they’re ineffective and resources are wasted. The Führer also has an opportunity to force the British out of North Africa and gain control of the Middle East’s valuable oil. But he rejects his generals’ advice, just as he unnecessarily draws the United States into the war in Europe.

On 27th January 1944, Stalin declares that Leningrad has been liberated. After a siege lasting two and a half years, German forces retreat with the Red Army in hot pursuit. Encouraged by the victory, Soviet general Govorov decides to liberate Estonia, but in the battle of Narva, the Germans upset his plans, and the front comes to a temporary halt. Hitler's forces are feeling the pressure on all sides, however.

The Germans and their Japanese allies have gone from victory to victory since the start of the war, but in the autumn of 1942, that begins to change. On the small Pacific island of Guadalcanal, US forces drive back the Japanese to capture a key airfield. Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, Hitler’s blitzkrieg slams to a halt at Stalingrad, stopped by the Russian winter and a Red Army determined to defend every street. As the war enters its fourth year, the conflict becomes ever more brutal.

Luftwaffe pilots fear one weapon more than any other: British Spitfires. Powerful Rolls Royce engines and an ingenious design make the plane fast and manoeuvrable. In 1940, Spitfires and their fearless pilots resist Hitler’s attempts to bomb Britain to submission. The fighter’s success forces Germany’s leaders to develop even more powerful weapons. London is targeted by V-1 and V-2 bombs, forerunners of the Saturn V moon rocket. Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front the supergun Schwerer Gustav fires shells at targets 47 kilometres away.

The battle is won, the enemy driven out, and everyone can breathe again. Many field generals thought this - but generals often make mistakes. Throughout World War II, specially trained soldiers made sure that the enemy never rested in peace. Command units struck anywhere and at any time: a German general was kidnapped in the middle of Crete, while commandos liberated Benito Mussolini from his prison on a mountain top. And British units blew up factories in a Norwegian town to deprive Germany of important raw materials.

German tanks rolled unimpeded across the Russian steppes at the start of Hitler’s campaign against the Soviet Union. But in 1943, the so-called Slavic "untermensch" (subhumans) gain the initiative and transform the country into a hell for Hitler’s invasion forces. Nearly 100,000 Germans are captured after the Battle of Stalingrad at the beginning of the year. Ahead lies cold, hunger and ill-treatment, and only five percent of prisoners will return to Germany after the war.

On the morning of Sunday 7th December, 1941, 183 Japanese aircraft fly across the quiet American naval base of Pearl Harbor. After a few minutes, oil stocks and airfields are in flames, and several of the United States’ largest battleships are heading towards the bottom of the harbour. The aim of the Japanese surprise attack is to hobble the United States once and for all, giving the empire a free hand to continue its conquests in Asia. But the assault has the opposite effect.

In 1933 Adolf Hitler seizes power after seducing the German people with lavish promises of restoring order, prosperity and the Greater German Reich to its former glories. He then goes to on exploit other Western European powers’ fear of confrontation to rearm the country in direct defiance of the restrictive terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Before his neighbours can react, Hitler has transformed Germany’s armed forces into the most modern war machine of the day. And Hitler is not alone.

Morgonen den 6 augusti 1945 fäller besättningen på planet Enola Gay en atombomb över Hiroshima. Några minuter senare har den japanska staden förvandlats till ett brinnande helvete. Tre dagar senare drabbas Nagasaki av samma öde. Till och med de förhärdade japanska generalerna, som varit fast beslutna att fortsätta strida, är skakade av den ofattbara förödelsen. När även kejsaren förespråkar en kapitulation, väljer Japan till slut att acceptera en villkorslös sådan. I allra sista ögonblicket är det nära att planerna kullkastas av en grupp officerare.

I augusti 1940 utsätts Berlin för ett bombanfall. Adolf Hitler blir rasande och beordrar omedelbart att en rad gigantiska luftvärnstorn ska byggas - vart och ett dyrare än stadens olympiska anläggningar. Tornen visar sig dock vara ineffektiva och är ett slöseri med resurser. Hitler slarvar även bort ett bra tillfälle att driva ut britterna ur Nordafrika och lägga beslag på Mellanösterns ovärderliga oljekällor, och till synes utan anledning drar han in stormakten USA i kriget i Europa.

I början av kriget rullar tyska stridsvagnar fram över land efter land, medan människor apatiskt ser på. Efter hand som tyskarnas ockupation blir alltmer brutal växer emellertid motståndsviljan. Fridfulla protester som allsångsträffar i Danmark utvecklas till sabotage och väpnad kamp. I Storbritannien är Winston Churchill snabb att snappa upp signalerna, och redan under sommaren 1940 upprättar han SOE, en hemlig spion- och sabotageorganisation. Churchills första order till SOE är tydlig: "Sätt Europa i brand".

I tolv år har Hitler regerat Tyskland. När riket under våren 1945 krymper, tar Führern sin tillflykt till Berlin. I april förskansar han sig i en bunker djupt under huvudstaden, men även där kan de ryska bomberna höras dygnet runt. Till sist är även Hitler tvungen att inse att kampen är över. Führern avvisar alla förslag att fly och väljer att använda sig av både en pistol och en giftkapsel - enligt läkaren det säkraste sättet att ta livet av sig på.

In 1944, there was still no united Yugoslavia, the Axis controlled most of Europe, and D-Day was only in the planning stages. In the Balkans, Tito was a beacon of hope against the advancing Nazis. He led a force of resistance fighters that bedeviled the occupying German army throughout Slavic regions and empowered people's committees to act as local government in all liberated areas. For observers on the political left, Tito seemed uniquely poised to unite the East and West against fascism - once and for all.

In today’s modern world, every political regime - even the most authoritarian or repressive - describes itself as democracy or a democratic people’s republic. The concept of rule by the people and on behalf of the people has come to be accepted as the norm. Very few would overtly espouse the cause of dictatorship, absolute monarchy, or oligarchy as the most desirable political system upon which to base the government of any country.

Die Weiße Rose - vor allem verbunden mit den Namen Hans und Sophie Scholl - kennt man als Widerstandsgruppe im nationalsozialistischen Staat. Wer aber weiß genau, was in den Flugblättern stand, die die jungen Leute das Leben kosteten?